This chapter introduces Japanese voices. Japanese has three voices, the causative voice, the passive voice, the potential voice. Although the causative and the potential are not members of voices according to a strict definition, Logical Japanese Grammar define them as members of voices, because these three voice are derived from ordinary verbs regularly. Then these derivative verbs change the rules of particles for cases. the subjective marker "ga", the object marker "ni", "o", comparing with the original verbs, while expressions for the polite and the tenses do not change the rules of particles for cases. The derivative verbs are unique to the verbs. The adjectival verbs and the copula do not have these derivations. All the derivative verbs are classified into the weak verbs.

How To Make Causative Forms

		dictionary	causative verbs			meaning
			stem	derivative	↓
Weak Verb	E	neru	ne	+ s + aseru →	nesaseru	to have somebody sleep
	I	miru	mi	+ s + aseru →	misaseru	to have somebody see
Strong Verb	K	kiku	kik	+ aseru →	kikaseru	to have somebody hear
	R	naru	nar	+ aseru →	naraseru	to have somebody become
	S	dasu	das	+ aseru →	dasaseru	to have somebody put out
	T	matsu	mat	+ aseru →	mataseru	to have somebody wait
	W	iu	iw	+ aseru →	iwaseru	to have somebody say
	B	yobu	yob	+ aseru →	yobaseru	to have somebody call
	G	nugu	nug	+ aseru →	nugaseru	to have somebody undress
	M	nomu	nom	+ aseru →	nomaseru	to have somebody drink
	N	shinu	shin	+ aseru →	shinaseru	to have somebody die
Irregular Verb	K	kuru	k	+ os + aseru →	kosaseru	to have somebody come
	S	suru	s	+ aseru →	saseru	to have somebody do

How To Make Passive Forms

		dictionary	passive verbs			meaning
			stem	derivative	↓
Weak Verb	E	neru	ne	+ r + areru →	nerareru		to have somebody sleep unwillingly
	I	miru	mi	+ r + areru →	mirareru	to be seen	to have somebody see unwillingly
Strong Verb	K	kiku	kik	+ areru →	kikareru	to be heard	to have somebody hear unwillingly
	R	naru	nar	+ areru →	narareru		to have somebody become unwillingly
	S	dasu	das	+ areru →	dasareru	to be put out	to have somebody put out unwillingly
	T	matsu	mat	+ areru →	matareru		to have somebody wait unwillingly
	W	iu	iw	+ areru →	iwareru	to be said	to have somebody say unwillingly
	B	yobu	yob	+ areru →	yobareru	to be called	to have somebody call unwillingly
	G	nugu	nug	+ areru →	nugareru	to be undressed	to have somebody undress unwillingly
	M	nomu	nom	+ areru →	nomareru	to be drunk	to have somebody drink unwillingly
	N	shinu	shin	+ areru →	shinareru		to have somebody die unwillingly
Irregular Verb	K	kuru	k	+ or areru →	korareru		to have somebody come unwillingly
	S	suru	s	+ areru →	sareru	to be done	to have somebody do unwillingly

How To Make Potential Forms

		dictionary	potential verbs			meaning
			stem	derivative	↓
Weak Verb	E	neru	ne	+ (ra)r + eru →	ne(ra)reru	to be able to sleep
	I	miru	mi	+ (ra)r + eru →	mi(ra)reru	to be able to see
Strong Verb	K	kiku	kik	+ eru →	kikeru	to be able to hear
	R	naru	nar	+ eru →	nareru	to be able to become
	S	dasu	das	+ eru →	daseru	to be able to put out
	T	matsu	mat	+ eru →	materu	to be able to wait
	W	iu	iw	+ eru →	ieru (*1)	to be able to say
	B	yobu	yob	+ eru →	yoberu	to be able to call
	G	nugu	nug	+ eru →	nugeru	to be able to undress
	M	nomu	nom	+ eru →	nomeru	to be able to drink
	N	shinu	shin	+ eru →	shineru	to be able to die
Irregular Verb	K	kuru	k	+ o(ra)r + eru →	ko(ra)reru	to be able to come
	S	suru	dekiru (*2)			to be able to do
(*1) a sound change : w + e → e (*2) "dekiru" is a potential verb. This is not derived from "suru".

The Causative [Kana Table]

verb	voice	subject	indirect object	direct object	predicate	meaning
intransitive	active	Amanda ga			ki-mashita.	Amanda came.
	causative	Masyuh' ga		Amanda 'o	kosase-mashita.	Matthew has Amanda come.
transitive	active	Amanda ga		wain 'o	nomi-mashita.	Amanda drank wine.
	causative	Masyuh' ga	Amanda ni	wain 'o	nomase-mashita.	Matthew has Amanda drink wine.
transitive	active	Amanda ga	Jesika ni	tiketto 'o	kai-mashita.	Amanda bought Jessica a ticket.
	causative	Masyuh' ga	Amanda ni Jesika ni (*1)	tiketto 'o	kawase-mashita.	Matthew has Amanda buy Jessica a ticket.
(*1) The order of "Amanda ni" followed by "Jesika ni" is very important. If the order is exchanged, the meaning is changed.

The table above shows us typical diagram to change particles among voices. When the predicate in the active voice is an intransitive verb, The subject in the active voice moves the direct object in the causative voice. When the predicate in the active voice is a transitive verb, The subject in the active voice moves the indirect object in the causative voice.

How to use causative forms

Case 1a

• (K): マシューが アマンダを こさせました。
• (J): Masyuh' ga Amanda 'o kosase-mashita.
• (E): Matthew has Amanda come.

Case 2a

• (K): マシューが アマンダに ワインを のませました。
• (J): Masyuh' ga Amanda ni wain 'o nomase-mashita.
• (E): Matthew has Amanda drink wine.

Case 3a

• (K): マシューが アマンダに ジェシカに ティケットを かわせました。
• (J): Masyuh' ga Amanda ni Jesika ni tiketto 'o kawase-mashita.
• (E): Matthew has Amanda buy Jessica a ticket.

The passive has two types of voices. One is the indirect passive voice, the other is the direct passive voice.

The Indirect Passive [Kana Table]

verb	voice	subject	indirect object	direct object	predicate	meaning
intransitive	active	Amanda ga			ki-mashita.	Amanda came.
	passive	Masyuh' ga	Amanda ni		korare-mashita.	Mathew has Amanda come.
transitive	active	Amanda ga		wain 'o	nomi-mashita.	Amanda drank wine.
	passive	Masyuh' ga	Amanda ni	wain 'o	momase-mashita.	Mathew has Amanda drink wine.
transitive	active	Amanda ga	Jesika ni	tiketto 'o	kai-mashita.	Amanda bought Jessica a ticket.
	passive	Masyuh' ga	Amanda ni Jesika ni (*1)	tiketto 'o	kaware-mashita.	Matthew has Amanda buy Jessica a ticket.
(*1) The order of "Amanda ni" followed by "Jesika ni" is very important. If the order is exchanged, the meaning is changed.

The table above shows us typical diagram to change particles among voices. The subject in the active voice moves the indirect object in the causative voice.

As you may be aware of it, the indirect passive voice is a kind of causative voices in its meaning. It indicates regretful feelings or unwilling feelings by the subject to the indirect object's action. You may rarely use indirect passive forms. However, these forms are very important for you to understand Japanese passive voice and potential voice because they are derived from this indirect passive voice historically.

How to use indirect passive forms

Case 1a

• (K): マシュが アマンダに こられました。
• (J): Masyuh' ga Amanda ni korare-mashita.
• (E): Matthew has Amanda come unwillingly.
  ( Because he was very tired and he wanted to stay alone. )

Case 2a

• (K): マシューが アマンダに ワインを のまれました。
• (J): Masyuh' ga Amanda ni wain 'o nomare-mashita.
• (E): Matthew has Amanda drink wine regretfully.
  ( Because the wine is very expensive and he did not want to give it to anyone. )

Case 3a

• (K): マシューが アマンダに ジェシカに ティケットを かわれました。
• (J): Masyuh' ga Amanda ni Jesika ni tiketto 'o kikare-mashita.
• (E): Matthew has Amanda buy Jessica a ticket unwillingly.
  ( Because this was the last ticket and Matthew could not get a ticket. )

The Direct Passive [Kana Table]

verb	voice	subject	indirect object	direct object	predicate	meaning
transitive	active	Amanda ga		wain 'o	nomi-mashita.	Amanda drank wine.
	passive	Wain ga	Amanda ni		nomare-mashita.	A movie was drunk by Amanda.
transitive	active	Amanda ga	Jesika ni	tiketto 'o	kai-mashita.	Amanda bought Jessica a ticket.
	passive	Jesika ga	Amanda ni	tiketto 'o	kaware-mashita.	Jessica was bought a ticket by Amanda.
	passive	Tiketto ga	Amanda ni		kaware-mashita.	A ticket was bought by Amanda.

The direct passive is an ordinary passive used generally in English. When the predicative verb has two objects, you may choose two passive sentences. One has the subject which comes from the indirect object, the other has the subject which comes from the direct object. When the predicative verb is an intransitive verb, there is no direct passive form.

How to use direct passive forms

Case 1a

• (K): ワインが (アマンダに) のまれました。
• (J): Wain ga (Amanda ni) nomare-mashita.
• (E): A movie was drunk (by Amanda).

Case 2a

• (K): ジェシカが (アマンダに) チケットを かわれました。
• (J): Jesika ga (Amanda ni) tiketto 'o kaware-mashita.
• (E): Jessica was bought a ticket (by Amanda).

Case 2b

• (K): ティケットが (アマンダに) かわれました。
• (J): Tiketto ga (Amanda ni) kaware-mashita.
• (E): A ticket was bought (by Amanda).

The potential has two types of voices. One is the direct potential voice. The relation of particles for cases do not change their position. The other is the indirect potential voice. In this voice, the direct object change its case into the subject.

The Indirect Potential [Kana Table]

verb	voice	subject	indirect object	direct object	predicate	meaning
intransitive	active	Amanda ga			ki-mashita.	Amanda came.
	potential	Amanda ga			ko(ra)re-mashita.	Amanda was able to come.
transitive	active	Amanda ga		wain 'o	nomi-mashita.	Amanda drank wine.
	potential	Amanda ga		wain 'o	nome-mashita.	Amanda was able to drink wine.
transitive	active	Amanda ga	Jesika ni	tiketto 'o	kai-mashita.	Amanda bought Jessica a ticket.
	potential	Amanda ga	Jesika ni	tiketto 'o	kae-mashita.	Amanda was able to buy Jessica a ticket.

How to use indirect potential forms

Case 1a

• (K): アマンダが こ(ら)れました。
• (J): Amanda ga ko(ra)re-mashita.
• (E): Amanda was able to come.

Case 2a

• (K): アマンダが ワインを のめました。
• (J): Amanda ga wain 'o nome-mashita.
• (E): Amanda was able to drink wine.

Case 3a

• (K): アマンダが ジェシカに ティケットを かえました。
• (J): Amanda ga Jesika ni tiketto 'o kae-mashita.
• (E): Amanda was able to buy Jessica a ticket.

The Direct Potential [Kana Table]

verb	voice	subject	indirect object	direct object	predicate	meaning
transitive	active	Amanda ga		wain 'o	nomi-mashita.	Amanda drank wine.
	potential	Wain ga	Amanda ni		nome-mashita.	Wine was capable of drinking for Amanda.
transitive	active	Amanda ga	Jesika ni	tiketto 'o	kai-mashita.	Amanda bought Jessica a ticket.
	potential	Tiketto ga	Amanda ni		kae-mashita.	A ticket was capable of buying for Amanda.

How to use direct potential forms

Case 1a

• (K): (アマンダに) ワインが のめました。
• (J): (Amanda ni) wain ga nome-mashita.
• (E): Wine was capable of drinking (for Amanda).

Case 2a

• (K): (アマンダに) ティケットが かえました。
• (J): (Amanda ni) tiketto ga kae-mashita.
• (E): A ticket was capable of buying (for Amanda).